The Rise of Mawlay Abd al-Hafiz: The Hafiziya Movement

By the beginning of August 1907, Morocco was at a crossroads. A simmering conspiracy involving the great qaid-s of the Atlas was publicly unveiled that month, aiming to place Mawlay Abd al-Hafiz on the throne in place of his lackluster brother. This conspiracy soon spread to the cities of the North. The development of a powerful opposition movement among the rural notables of the south raises several questions. It is important not to take a teleological view of the evolution of the Hafiziya movement. The following account, pieced together from European sources, may be modified when makhzan records become available. The Hafiziya movement's roots can be traced back to various socio-political dynamics in Morocco during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The dissatisfaction with the ruling regime and the increasing influence of European powers, particularly France, created fertile ground for opposition movements. The rural notables of the south, who had long felt marginalized and neglected by the central government, began to seek alternatives. Mawlay Abd al-Hafiz, with his strong intellectual background and administrative skills, emerged as a potential leader who could challenge the status quo and offer a new direction for Morocco.

The Rise of Mawlay Abd al-Hafiz: The Hafiziya Movement

The Personality and Early Career of Mawlay Abd al-Hafiz

To understand the Hafiziya movement, it is useful to begin with the personality of its leader, Mawlay Abd al-Hafiz. Earlier accounts have found him somewhat enigmatic. Praised by French visitors to Marrakech prior to 1907 for his openness of mind and accessibility, he was later excoriated by many of the same people for his bloody-minded fanaticism. The key to this complex individual lies in his early career and experiences. Mawlay Abd al-Hafiz was born in 1876. His mother, Aliya Sattatiya, came from the rural gentry of the Chaouia. Her grandfather, al-Ghazi ibn al-Madani, had been governor of Rabat, the Chaouia, and Tadla under Mawlay Sulayman. From an early age, Abd al-Hafiz displayed strong intellectual interests and considerable administrative aptitude. From 1897 to 1901, he served as khalifa at Tiznit in the extreme south of the Sous province, where he honed his skills as an administrator. As khalifa, Abd al-Hafiz demonstrated his ability to manage complex administrative tasks and navigate the intricate political landscape of the region. His experiences in Tiznit provided him with valuable insights into the challenges faced by the rural population and the limitations of the central government's policies. These experiences also allowed him to build a network of supporters who would later play a crucial role in the Hafiziya movement.

The Formation of the Conspiracy

According to A. G. P. Martin, a principal source on the origins of the Hafiziya, the conspiracy grew out of several meetings between Abd al-Hafiz and Madani al-Glaoui during the fall of 1904. Their discussions focused on the deteriorating political situation and projects aimed at "assuring the security of Islam." This period also coincided with emerging opposition to French reforms in Fez. However, there were no significant connections between the two movements, and it was not until 1906 that the supporters of Abd al-Hafiz sought to build a national movement. The Hafiziya was not a stable coalition but a shifting pattern of alliances, making it vulnerable to makhzan divide-and-rule tactics. In early 1905, Si Aissa ibn Umar al-Abdi was invited to join the intrigue but refused to cooperate and warned Sultan Abd al-Aziz of the conspiracy. Under pressure from the notables of Fez over French reform proposals, the sultan could not afford a rebellion. He resolved to take action by sending a maballa (tax-collecting expedition) under his uncle, Mawlay al-Abbas, to the south with a secret mission to arrest Abd al-Hafiz and bring him to Fez. However, word of the plot was leaked, and with the aid of Madani al-Glaoui, Abd al-Hafiz thwarted his brother's designs. Madani al-Glaoui's role in the conspiracy was pivotal. As a powerful and influential figure in the south, Glaoui's support was crucial for the success of the Hafiziya movement. His extensive network and resources enabled the movement to gain momentum and attract supporters from various regions. Glaoui's disillusionment with the central government and his vision for modernization further fueled his commitment to the cause.
The Role of Madani al-Glaoui and the Modernization Vision During the reign of Mawlay al-Hasan, Madani al-Glaoui built his power base in the south with makhzan support. He was interested in the world beyond his mountain stronghold and subscribed to the Arabic press of the Arab East. His experiences during the ill-fated makhzan expedition against Abu Himara in 1903 soured him on Abd al-Aziz. A visit to French Algeria impressed him with Morocco's backwardness, leading him to advocate for a crash program to modernize the country. Like many Middle Eastern nationalists, he was inspired by Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), which demonstrated that non-European peoples could achieve progress.Glaoui's vision of modernization resonated with many supporters of the Hafiziya movement, who saw the potential for Morocco to resist European domination and achieve progress. His advocacy for modernization was not limited to economic and infrastructural development but also included educational reforms and the promotion of cultural and intellectual growth. Glaoui believed that a modernized Morocco could better protect its sovereignty and cultural heritage.

The Spread and Challenges of the Hafiziya Movement

As the Hafiziya movement spread, it faced numerous challenges. The unstable nature of the coalition made it susceptible to internal divisions and external manipulation by the makhzan. Supporters of Abd al-Hafiz sought to build a national movement, but their efforts were hindered by the lack of cohesion and the makhzan's divide-and-rule tactics. Despite these obstacles, the movement gained momentum, attracting support from various factions disillusioned with the current regime and French reforms. In early 1905, Si Aissa ibn Umar al-Abdi's refusal to join the conspiracy and his warning to Sultan Abd al-Aziz underscored the internal divisions within the opposition. The sultan's response, sending a tax-collecting expedition with a secret mission to arrest Abd al-Hafiz, revealed the high stakes of the political struggle. The failure of this mission, due to the leaked plot and the support of Madani al-Glaoui, highlighted the complexities and challenges facing both the Hafiziya movement and the ruling regime. The Hafiziya movement's ability to attract a diverse range of supporters, including rural notables, urban elites, and religious leaders, demonstrated its broad appeal. However, the movement's success also depended on its ability to navigate the intricate political landscape and build alliances with key stakeholders. The shifting alliances and power dynamics within the movement created both opportunities and challenges for its leaders.

The Influence of External Events on the Hafiziya Movement

The broader geopolitical context also played a significant role in shaping the Hafiziya movement. The opposition to French reforms in Fez and the broader dissatisfaction with colonial influence provided a backdrop for the conspiracy. Additionally, the influence of Madani al-Glaoui, who was inspired by external events such as Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War, added a layer of complexity to the movement's objectives and strategies. Glaoui's vision of modernization and progress reflected broader nationalist sentiments in the Middle East and North Africa. Glaoui's experiences during the makhzan expedition against Abu Himara and his observations during a visit to French Algeria shaped his views on the need for modernization. His advocacy for a crash program to modernize Morocco resonated with many supporters of the Hafiziya movement, who saw the potential for non-European peoples to achieve progress and resist colonial domination. This vision of modernization and resistance to colonial influence became a central theme in the Hafiziya movement's ideology. The Hafiziya movement also drew inspiration from other anti-colonial movements and nationalist struggles around the world. The success of Japan in the Russo-Japanese War demonstrated that non-European nations could challenge and defeat European powers. This example provided a powerful source of motivation for the Hafiziya movement, reinforcing their belief in the possibility of resisting colonial domination and achieving progress.

The Impact of the Hafiziya Movement on Morocco's Political Landscape

The rise of the Hafiziya movement had a profound impact on Morocco's political landscape. The movement's ability to mobilize support and challenge the central government's authority demonstrated the deep-seated discontent with the existing regime. The Hafiziya movement's calls for modernization and resistance to colonial influence resonated with many Moroccans, who saw the movement as a potential catalyst for change. The central government's response to the Hafiziya movement, including attempts to arrest Abd al-Hafiz and suppress the conspiracy, highlighted the regime's vulnerability and the growing opposition to its policies. The failure of these efforts to quell the movement underscored the limitations of the central government's authority and the increasing power of the opposition. The Hafiziya movement also contributed to a broader discourse on modernization and national identity in Morocco. The movement's emphasis on modernization and resistance to colonial influence reflected a broader desire for political and social reform. This discourse influenced subsequent nationalist movements and played a role in shaping Morocco's path towards independence. The rise of Mawlay Abd al-Hafiz and the Hafiziya movement in early 20th century Morocco reflects a complex interplay of internal and external factors. The movement emerged from a conspiracy among rural notables in the south, driven by dissatisfaction with the ruling regime and opposition to French reforms. The unstable nature of the coalition, internal divisions, and external manipulation by the makhzan posed significant challenges to the movement's success. Key figures such as Madani al-Glaoui, who advocated for modernization inspired by external events, added a layer of complexity to the movement's objectives and strategies. The broader geopolitical context, including opposition to colonial influence and the inspiration drawn from Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War, shaped the Hafiziya movement's ideology and goals.

Conclusion

Ultimately, the Hafiziya movement's rise and challenges highlight the intricate dynamics of political opposition and resistance in early 20th century Morocco. The movement's legacy reflects broader themes of modernization, resistance to colonial influence, and the complex interplay of internal and external factors that shaped Morocco's political landscape during this period. Despite its eventual decline, the Hafiziya movement left a lasting impact on Morocco's path towards independence and its ongoing quest for modernization and national identity.