During the winter of 1911-12, the ambiguous political situation in Morocco continued to foster disputes between the occupying French forces and the local population. In the countryside, vague disquiet showed signs of turning into more determined resistance efforts. In the cities, especially Fez, rumblings of discontent increasingly came to the attention of the Arab Bureau. Fasi merchants, who had assumed that the arrival of the French would facilitate the development of trade, revised their expectations when new contracts failed to materialize. The laboring poor found themselves squeezed by rising prices and resented the presence of French troops in the city. The religious elements were alienated by an inopportune French decision to abolish their tax exemptions and to apply the tartib to them. Despite numerous indications that all was not well, plans proceeded for the signing of the protectorate treaty later in the year. The general sense of unrest among various segments of the Moroccan population foreshadowed the challenges that the French administration would face in consolidating control over the country.
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| The Fez Mutiny and the Revolt of El Hiba |
The Signing of the Protectorate Treaty
On March 24, 1912, Henri Regnault, the French minister at Tangier, arrived in Fez, fresh from lengthy consultations in Paris. In his baggage was the protectorate treaty. Immediately upon his arrival, Regnault closeted himself with Sultan Abd al-Hafiz. With the assistance of Gaillard and Ben Ghabrit, he was able to induce Abd al-Hafiz to sign the treaty without modification. Elaborate guarantees for the future status of the sultan, including a substantial annual pension, eventually convinced him to sign, although he did so under duress. The sultan and his ministers had been resigned for some time to the inevitability of a protectorate. Discussions with Consul Gaillard and others had led makhzan officials to believe that Morocco would be given a regime similar to that of British Egypt, with considerable autonomy in crucial areas like justice and the internal workings of the administration. What they received instead was a treaty modeled explicitly upon the treaty of Bardo, which had established the Tunisian protectorate. By its terms, the sultan was to be reduced to a position approximating that of the bey of Tunis. The insult was patent. As Mawlay Abd al-Hafiz observed bitterly to Macleod, "Who cares a farthing whether the Bey of Tunis is wise or foolish?"
The Treaty of Fez: Terms and Implications
A closer look at the terms of the treaty reveals the source of the sultan's disquiet. Article 1 of the treaty guaranteed the exercise of the Islamic religion, the preservation of the religious character of the sultanate, and the security of the pious foundations (hubus). Closer inspection showed the hollowness of such promises, however. No safeguards existed against later encroachment upon these rights by the protectorate government. Furthermore, the same article excluded the sultan from negotiations over the northern zone and the status of Tangier, amounting to the disposition of Moroccan territory without Moroccan consent. Article 2 could be read as authorizing the dispatch of troops anywhere in Moroccan territory without the approval of the sultan, as well as their commitment overseas. Article 3 was more straightforward, obliging the French government to preserve the throne and dynasty. Through the legal fiction of delegation propounded in Article 4, virtually all powers were placed in the hands of the new protectorate government. Moroccan officials retained only symbolic authority, and their number was to be kept to a minimum. The resident-general now assumed all control over the foreign relations of the country (Articles 5 and 6). The sultan renounced the right to conclude financial agreements without the prior approval of the French government and agreed to join with France in working out the financial reorganization of the state (Articles 7 and 8). In effect, the financial affairs were now definitively handed over to the bondholders. The Treaty of Fez, in sum, emptied the authority of the sultan and the makhzan of all substance and created alongside their authority a highly ramified protectorate government with complete control in all the areas that counted.Reaction and Resistance
Regnault initially sought to keep news of the treaty's signing a secret, pending the departure of the sultan for Rabat. However, it soon leaked to the French press and became the subject of agitated conversation among Moroccans in the city. According to contemporary accounts, the news of the treaty provoked strong reactions among the local population. The sense of betrayal and disillusionment with the French occupation fueled growing resistance. The discontent in Fez was mirrored in other cities and regions, where the presence of French troops and the imposition of new taxes and regulations exacerbated existing grievances. The religious elite, in particular, felt that their authority and privileges were being undermined by the new administration. The tension between the French authorities and various segments of Moroccan society set the stage for further conflict and resistance.The Fez Mutiny and the Revolt of El Hiba
The signing of the protectorate treaty and the subsequent implementation of French control led to significant unrest in Fez. In April 1912, a mutiny broke out among Moroccan soldiers in the city, who were disillusioned with their treatment and the new colonial regime. The mutiny quickly escalated into a broader uprising, with local residents joining the soldiers in their resistance against French forces. The Fez Mutiny was a significant event that underscored the deep-seated discontent and resistance to the French protectorate. The violence and chaos that ensued highlighted the challenges faced by the French administration in maintaining control and stability in Morocco. Meanwhile, in the south, the figure of El Hiba emerged as a new pretender challenging the authority of the French protectorate. El Hiba, also known as Ma al-'Aynayn, was a religious and political leader who garnered significant support among the tribes of the Sahara and the Anti-Atlas. He declared himself the rightful ruler of Morocco and launched a campaign to expel the French from the country. The revolt of El Hiba gained momentum as he and his followers moved northward, gaining support from various tribes and communities along the way. The French administration, already stretched thin by the unrest in Fez and other cities, faced a new and formidable challenge in the south.Consolidation of the French Protectorate
The French administration responded to the Fez Mutiny and the revolt of El Hiba with a combination of military force and political maneuvering. The suppression of the mutiny in Fez required significant military resources and led to further tensions between the French authorities and the local population. The French also launched military campaigns to counter the advances of El Hiba and his forces in the south. The consolidation of the French protectorate involved efforts to stabilize the political situation and assert control over key regions. The French administration worked to co-opt local leaders and build alliances with influential figures to strengthen their authority. However, these efforts were often met with resistance and mistrust from the Moroccan population. The establishment of the French protectorate marked the beginning of a new chapter in Moroccan history, characterized by the complex interplay of colonial rule, resistance, and the struggle for independence. The events of 1911-12 and the subsequent years highlighted the challenges of colonial governance and the resilience of the Moroccan people in the face of foreign domination.Navigating the Complexities of the Protectorate Period
Establishing Control and Implementing Reforms
With the formal establishment of the French protectorate over Morocco in 1912, the French administration faced the immense task of consolidating control and implementing reforms. The protectorate system aimed to preserve Morocco's nominal sovereignty while allowing France to exercise significant influence over its administration and resources. This dual system often led to conflicts of interest and complex power dynamics between Moroccan authorities and the French administration. The French embarked on a series of reforms designed to modernize the country and integrate it into the broader framework of French North Africa. These reforms included the construction of infrastructure such as roads, railways, and ports, which facilitated economic development and military control. Additionally, the French introduced educational reforms to establish a modern school system, although access to education remained limited and often favored the European population and elite Moroccans. Economic reforms were also central to the French administration's strategy. They sought to exploit Morocco's natural resources, including minerals and agricultural products, for the benefit of the French economy. This often led to the displacement of local populations and the disruption of traditional economic practices, causing significant social and economic upheaval.Resistance and the Rise of Nationalism
While the French administration implemented its reforms, it faced growing resistance from various segments of Moroccan society. Traditional elites, religious leaders, and rural communities were often opposed to the changes imposed by the colonial authorities. This resistance was fueled by grievances over land confiscations, tax policies, and the erosion of traditional power structures. The protectorate period also witnessed the rise of a nationalist movement in Morocco. Inspired by broader anti-colonial struggles and the desire for self-determination, Moroccan nationalists sought to challenge the legitimacy of colonial rule and assert their independence. The nationalist movement was initially fragmented, with various factions and leaders advocating different strategies and visions for the country's future. One of the key figures in the Moroccan nationalist movement was Allal al-Fassi, a prominent intellectual and political leader who played a crucial role in mobilizing support for independence. Al-Fassi and other nationalist leaders sought to build a broad-based coalition that included urban elites, rural communities, and religious leaders. They utilized various means, including petitions, protests, and diplomatic efforts, to pressure the French administration and garner international support for their cause.The Impact of World War I and II
The two World Wars had a profound impact on Morocco and its quest for independence. During World War I, many Moroccans were conscripted into the French army and sent to fight on European battlefields. The war exacerbated economic hardships and social tensions, contributing to growing discontent with colonial rule. World War II further intensified these dynamics. The war's impact on global politics and the weakening of European colonial powers provided an opportunity for nationalist movements in Africa and Asia to push for independence. In Morocco, the nationalist movement gained momentum as leaders capitalized on the shifting international landscape to advocate for self-determination. The Atlantic Charter, signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill in 1941, articulated the principles of self-determination and respect for national sovereignty. Moroccan nationalists seized upon these principles to bolster their demands for independence. Additionally, the presence of American troops in Morocco during the war exposed Moroccans to new ideas and further galvanized the nationalist movement.The Path to Independence
The post-World War II period saw increasing pressure on the French administration as the nationalist movement in Morocco gained strength. The 1944 manifesto of independence, issued by the Moroccan nationalist party Istiqlal, called for the end of French rule and the establishment of an independent Moroccan state. This marked a turning point in the struggle for independence, as it articulated a clear and unified demand for self-determination. In response to growing nationalist agitation, the French administration attempted to implement limited reforms to placate the movement. However, these efforts were largely seen as insufficient, and the demand for full independence continued to grow. The situation became increasingly untenable as nationalist protests and strikes intensified, leading to violent clashes between Moroccans and French authorities. The relationship between the French administration and Sultan Mohammed V was a critical factor in the independence struggle. Mohammed V emerged as a symbolic leader of the nationalist movement, garnering widespread support among Moroccans. His advocacy for independence and willingness to challenge the French administration made him a central figure in the quest for sovereignty.The Achievements of Independence
In 1956, Morocco finally achieved independence, marking the end of the French protectorate and the beginning of a new era for the country. The transition to independence was marked by significant challenges, as the new government sought to build a unified and independent nation. One of the key achievements of independence was the restoration of Morocco's sovereignty and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. Sultan Mohammed V played a central role in this process, transitioning from a symbolic figurehead to an active leader in shaping the country's future. The adoption of a new constitution in 1962 formalized the framework of governance and provided a basis for political stability. Economic development was a major priority for the newly independent state. The government implemented policies to promote industrialization, agriculture, and infrastructure development. Efforts were made to diversify the economy and reduce dependence on foreign assistance. Education and healthcare systems were also expanded to improve the quality of life for Moroccans. Social reforms aimed at addressing the legacy of colonial rule and promoting social justice were another key focus. Land redistribution, labor rights, and social welfare programs were introduced to address historical inequities and improve the living conditions of the population. The aftermath of the revolt and the Second Moroccan Crisis marked a period of significant diplomatic and internal challenges for the French administration. The skepticism and opposition from Germany and Spain, coupled with the internal discord between diplomats and the military, highlighted the complexities of colonial administration and the competing interests of European powers. The resolution of the crisis through diplomatic negotiations and the establishment of a French protectorate over Morocco marked the realization of a long-held colonial ambition for a united French North Africa. However, the period also underscored the challenges of managing transitional periods in colonial territories, reflecting the broader complexities of colonial rule and the intricate dynamics of international diplomacy. Protectorate period had a profound impact on Morocco, shaping its political, social, and economic landscape. The rise of the nationalist movement and the quest for independence reflected the broader desire for self-determination and resistance to colonial influence.Conclusion
The eventual achievement of independence in 1956 marked a new chapter in Morocco's history, as the country embarked on a path of nation-building and modernization. The legacy of the protectorate period continues to influence Morocco's development and its ongoing quest for modernization and national identity. The challenges and complexities of the colonial period remain relevant as Morocco navigates its path towards a unified and independent future, reflecting the enduring impact of its history and the resilience of its people.
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