The Corrosive Effects of European Economic Penetration

The period between 1860 and 1912 was transformative for Morocco, marking significant social and political changes due to European influence. These changes were driven by the gradual incorporation of Morocco into the emerging global economic system, which disrupted traditional structures and led to the rise of new elite groups within the state. The transformation of the agrarian economy and artisanal production, coupled with the development of a centralized bureaucratic administration, fundamentally altered Moroccan society. Traditional supports such as the jaysh system, the makhzan, and the (ulama were weakened, giving way to new groups, including rural notables and the urban bourgeoisie, who were closely tied to European political and commercial interests. Despite widespread social and economic distress, Morocco did not experience a social revolution or a unified national resistance movement during this period. However, the groundwork for the later emergence of a Moroccan civic and class consciousness was laid during this tumultuous era. One significant aspect of the corrosive effects of incorporation into the world economy upon existing traditional structures and institutions can be observed at the local level. The development of a new bourgeoisie in the ports and a rural notability, which differed from the traditional one by the guaranteed durability of its fortunes and its solid connections with European business interests, typified the changed situation at the end of the nineteenth century. A new makhzan elite with strong interests in the centralization of the government and its reform along European lines further reflected the transformation of Moroccan society. While new groups rose to positions of unprecedented wealth and power, others fell on hard times. Artisans, small businessmen, craftsmen, and large numbers of poor peasants and smallholders in the countryside found the new economic circumstances increasingly onerous and were reduced to desperate measures. The crumbling of the old society in the face of European economic penetration seriously compromised the hopes that Morocco might effectively respond to the European challenge. Just when they were most needed, the old structures were gravely weakened.

Moroccan Society

Effects of European Economic Penetration 

The widespread social and economic changes in motion largely shaped and molded the political movements of protest and resistance throughout Morocco. Thus, local manifestations of the broader phenomenon of European economic penetration were intimately connected to Moroccan politics in the period under study. On both the levels of high finance and the local economy, European penetration seriously affected the shape of politics in Morocco. In the former case, it helped restrict and limit the Moroccan ability to respond, while in the latter, it was a major contributing factor to the social and economic transformation of society. In comparison with the states of the Middle East and North Africa, the economic decline of Morocco was much more rapid and its effects were therefore much more devastating. Morocco, possessing a smaller and much less articulated economy than countries like Egypt or the Ottoman Empire, and compelled by the force of circumstances to be incorporated into the world economy only after Europe had achieved a crushing superiority, was naturally more seriously affected. Monetary difficulties, unfavorable trade balances, foreign loans, and the creation of a bondholders organization—steps that took decades in most Middle Eastern countries—were traversed by Morocco in a fraction of that time. The increasing pace of change was an important characteristic of the Moroccan case.

Structural Weaknesses of the Political System

An important contributing cause to the series of crises that shook Morocco between 1900 and 1912 was the structural weakness of its political system. The complex political events of these years resulted from the system's inability to effectively deal with problems such as mounting debts, military reverses, foreign encroachment, a prolonged monetary and financial crisis, and serious social dislocations deriving from structural changes in the economy. This political weakness had several aspects. The relentless fiscal pressures of the makhzan upon the rural populations and efforts to elaborate a new and more efficient system of rural administration and tax collection came into direct conflict with the ambitions of the rising new group of rural notables and urban landowners. This resulted in a series of quarrels over patronage, governmental jurisdiction, and eventually a direct challenge to the material well-being and customary privileges of a large proportion of the rural elite. The government's inability to devise an enforceable program of reform was a source of endless difficulties. More critical was the failure of efforts at military modernization. The traditional army, the jaysh, was seriously weakened during the nineteenth century. However, the changing policies of the makhzan, the intervention of the powers, and the educational insufficiencies of the regime ensured that military reforms would be continually frustrated. In the end, makhzan efforts to achieve more effective central control seriously weakened older political bonds and alienated much of the ruling class.

Government Reforms and Elite Discontent

Government efforts at change constituted the principal source of discontent among the elite. Sharp awareness of the structural weaknesses of the regime encouraged the makhzan to adopt a series of reforms aimed at strengthening its stability and control over the country. The attempt to create new institutions and expand the role and influence of the government can be examined in terms of domestic reforms aimed at the local populations. Domestic efforts at reform concentrated on eliminating blocks to government centralization and generating new institutions staffed by new men. A study of the reform process in Europe and the Middle East teaches that three main obstacles were encountered by would-be centralizing regimes: a traditional army, a provincial notability, and a traditional religious class. The privileges and immunities possessed by these groups ensured that they would not easily relinquish their positions. The efforts of nineteenth-century sultans greatly reduced the importance of the jaysh tribes as a military force, but the centralizing drive of the makhzan antagonized the provincial notables and incurred the opposition of the religious brotherhoods and zawiyas, whose interests were threatened by salafiyya-inspired reforms. The segmentation of the elite and the religious classes alone prevented unified opposition. It should also be noted that both the provincial notables and the (ulama benefited in important ways from governmental reforms. The failure of military reforms increased makhzan reliance upon the rural elite, while the creation of new bureaucratic posts (notably the umana) meant unprecedented chances for graft for ambitious young scholars. Attempts to generate a new army and a more modern clergy were much less successful.

Popular Protest and Resistance Movements

The movements of popular protest and resistance that engulfed Morocco in the first part of the twentieth century present the historian with a broad spectrum of precolonial political movements. The changing patterns of the participation of the elite in the various movements constitute one of the most interesting aspects of this subject. The segmentation and fragmentation of the Moroccan elite into a myriad of kin groups, patron-client networks, occupational and religious associations, and other groups greatly militated against any unified action. Profound distrust of those in other groups was further magnified by the uncertainty of the ecology and the poor communications that existed within the sharifian empire. Unlike the societies of modern Europe, with their deeply entrenched privileged classes, Morocco lacked an aristocracy or a true bourgeoisie. The Moroccan elite, as a result, was vulnerable to sudden reversals of individual fortunes. Lacking a substantial institutional base, the elite was led to look after its own interests and those of its family and close associates. This fragmentation and lack of cohesion among the elite contributed to the overall weakness of the political system and its inability to effectively respond to the challenges posed by European intervention.

Key Events and Developments

Several key events and developments during this period illustrate the complex interplay of forces shaping Moroccan society. The signing of the Cambon-Lansdowne agreement in 1904 marked a turning point in European involvement in Morocco. This agreement ended the diplomatic stalemate between France and Great Britain and opened the way for increased French influence. The Algeciras Conference of 1906 further solidified European control over Moroccan affairs, with the signing of the Algeciras Act limiting the options available to the Moroccan government. The conflict within France also played a significant role in shaping Moroccan responses to European intervention. The struggle between the diplomats and the warriors over French policy towards Morocco influenced the direction of French actions and contributed to the piecemeal nature of the French conquest. The growing crisis in Europe, coupled with domestic strife and factionalism, further complicated French efforts to establish control over Morocco. The social fabric of Moroccan society was significantly affected by these changes. Traditional social hierarchies and relationships were disrupted, leading to shifts in power dynamics and social mobility. The introduction of European education and the establishment of new economic opportunities created pathways for new groups to gain influence and power. Urbanization and the growth of cities also marked this period. The expansion of trade and commerce led to the development of urban centers, where new social and economic dynamics emerged. The urban bourgeoisie, in particular, became an important force in the evolving political landscape of Morocco.

Cultural and Intellectual Responses

The period between 1860 and 1912 also saw significant cultural and intellectual responses to the changes taking place in Morocco. Intellectuals and reformers engaged in debates about the future of Moroccan society, grappling with questions of identity, modernization, and resistance to European domination. Literature, art, and other forms of cultural expression reflected the tensions and aspirations of the time. The cultural responses to European influence and internal changes were diverse, ranging from calls for modernization and reform to efforts to preserve and revive traditional practices and values. Moroccan resistance to European intervention took various forms during this period. The piecemeal nature of the French conquest led to a piecemeal Moroccan resistance, with different regions and groups responding in different ways. While there was no unified national resistance movement, there were significant pockets of resistance that challenged French authority. Thus, in every major development during the period under study, the attitude of the (ulama played an important, often determining role in the outcome. In a society as segmented as Morocco's and as beset with overlapping jurisdictions, it is striking that the religious elite could affect the outcome of events. Despite their vague structural position in the state (a position far less definite than in either the Ottoman Empire or Iran) and their absence of a corporate identity as a group, the Moroccan (ulama were nonetheless able to exercise considerable influence. The period between 1860 and 1912 marked profound social, economic, and political changes in Morocco. The gradual incorporation of Morocco into the global economic system, coupled with increasing European intervention, disrupted traditional structures and led to the rise of new elite groups within the state. The transformation of the agrarian economy, the development of a centralized bureaucratic administration, and the weakening of traditional supports like the jaysh system, the makhzan, and the (ulama fundamentally altered Moroccan society. European economic penetration and the resulting political transformations had significant impacts at both local and national levels. The development of a new bourgeoisie and a rural notability with strong connections to European business interests exemplified the changed situation. At the same time, the Moroccan political system struggled to cope with the challenges posed by mounting debts, military reverses, foreign encroachment, and structural changes in the economy. Government efforts at reform, while aimed at strengthening stability and control, often exacerbated tensions and conflicts within society. The fragmentation and lack of cohesion among the Moroccan elite further contributed to the overall weakness of the political system. Popular movements of protest and resistance, while widespread, were often disjointed and lacked unified leadership.

Conclusion

The period also saw significant cultural and intellectual responses to the changes taking place in Morocco. Intellectuals and reformers engaged in debates about the future of Moroccan society, grappling with questions of identity, modernization, and resistance to European domination. Ultimately, the groundwork for the later emergence of a Moroccan national identity and the eventual struggle for independence was laid during this tumultuous period. The legacy of this era continues to influence Morocco's political, social, and cultural landscape, highlighting the complex interplay of forces that have shaped its history. By examining the social, political, and economic changes that took place during this transformative period, we gain a deeper understanding of the factors that shaped modern Morocco. The period between 1860 and 1912 set the stage for the development of a more unified national identity and laid the foundation for Morocco's ongoing evolution as a nation.