The Civil War of the Two Sultans

On August 16, 1907, the Chaouia tribes sent a letter to Abd al-Hafiz, reaching Marrakech. The notables and ulama were convened at the Dar al-Makhzan to discuss the situation and consider alternative courses of action. Abd al-Hafiz expressed his willingness to serve as sultan, though he stressed his personal reluctance. Several speakers highlighted the desperate situation of the country and the sufferings of the Chaouia people. Abd al-Hafiz’s mother, who was from the region, broke into tears at the mention of their plight. The ulama were consulted on whether it was permissible to depose Abd al-Aziz and select another sultan. Upon their affirmative response, Muhammad Wuld Mawlay al-Rashid, son of the khalifa of Tafilalet, endorsed Abd al-Hafiz, stating, “The only one who is fit for the dignity of king, who is already khalifa, son and grandson of sultans of the imperial dynasty, learned, capable, intelligent, is Mawlay Hafiz. May God give him victory!” Madani al-Glaoui supported this invocation, leading those assembled to repeat it. The ulama, sharifs, and notables signed the bay’a (the act of allegiance), signifying the accession of a new sultan, marking the end of the first act of the civil war.

The Civil War of the Two Sultans

Public Rejoicing and Legitimacy

The rest of the day and the following one were filled with public rejoicing. Abd al-Hafiz received delegations from various city groups, including the pasha, notables, Fasi merchants, and Jews. Over 400,000 pesetas in gifts were collected. Makhzan properties were seized, and revenues from pious foundations (hublis) were diverted to Abd al-Hafiz’s treasury. To further solidify his religious legitimacy, Abd al-Hafiz made a ritual pilgrimage to the zawiya of Tamesloht in the Atlas, where he was received by the sharifs, and visited the shrine of Sidi Bel Abbes on the return journey. The new makhzan appointed by Abd al-Hafiz reflected the basic forces behind the movement. Madani al-Glaoui was named the minister of war (calif al-Kabir), given the significance of the position. The grand vizir was Ibn Kabir, pasha of the qasba of Marrakech, initially appointed as a hostage due to doubts about his loyalty. However, he lasted only until May 1908, when al-Glaoui formally took over. Si Aissa ibn Umar al-Abdi was appointed as the minister of foreign affairs, with his principal secretary, Abdallah al-Fasi, handling the office’s functions. Si Aissa, pasha of Safi and head of the powerful Abda confederation, could mobilize a large cavalry force. Al-Mtouggui was appointed as the minister of complaints, while Si Tayyib al-Tazi, a long-time makhzan employee and Arab, became the minister of finances.

Unprecedented Insurgency and Social Change

The insurgency of August 1907 was unprecedented in Morocco’s history, as it involved close collaboration between a prince of the Alawi house and the Amazigh chieftains of the Western High Atlas. This marked a drastic change in the social composition of the makhzan, traditionally confined to Arab makhzan families and the notables of major northern cities. By basing his government on semi-feudal Amazigh chiefs rather than an effete clerical class, Abd al-Hafiz created a regime that represented real and potent interests in the country, not just an isolated urban Arab bureaucratic constituency. This shift opened up possibilities for real reform and ensured that the new regime would be stronger than Abd al-Aziz’s fragile government. However, if reform efforts began to conflict with the interests of the great qaid-s, the new government could become vulnerable. For the Hafiziya to develop into a truly national movement, it needed the backing of the ulama and notables of Fez. The dominance of the new government by the lords of the Atlas, however, was not reassuring to these groups.

Consolidating Power and Proclamations

After the proclamation in Marrakech, most important tribes of the Marrakech plains region quickly rallied to Abd al-Hafiz. During this period, southern cities like Azemmour and El Jadida also proclaimed him as their ruler. In El Jadida, panic ensued, leading the European population to seek refuge in consulates and wealthy Moroccans to flee to Tangier. The French consul’s bold actions prevented the contents of the makhzan armory from being handed over to insurgents. Safi proclaimed Abd al-Hafiz on September 7, and Si Aissa ibn Umar departed for Marrakech with Abda horsemen to join the government. Further north, the arrival of French cruisers at Rabat prevented violence and a proclamation for Abd al-Hafiz. During the reign of Mawlay al-Hasan, Madani al-Glaoui built his power base in the south with makhzan support. He was interested in the world beyond his mountain stronghold and subscribed to the Arabic press of the Arab East. His experiences during the ill-fated makhzan expedition against Abu Himara in 1903 soured him on Abd al-Aziz. A visit to French Algeria impressed him with Morocco's backwardness, leading him to advocate for a crash program to modernize the country. Like many Middle Eastern nationalists, he was inspired by Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), which demonstrated that non-European peoples could achieve progress. Glaoui's vision of modernization resonated with many supporters of the Hafiziya movement, who saw the potential for Morocco to resist European domination and achieve progress. His advocacy for modernization was not limited to economic and infrastructural development but also included educational reforms and the promotion of cultural and intellectual growth. Glaoui believed that a modernized Morocco could better protect its sovereignty and cultural heritage.

The Challenges and Internal Dynamics of the Hafiziya Movement

The Hafiziya movement's ability to attract a diverse range of supporters, including rural notables, urban elites, and religious leaders, demonstrated its broad appeal. However, the movement's success also depended on its ability to navigate the intricate political landscape and build alliances with key stakeholders. The shifting alliances and power dynamics within the movement created both opportunities and challenges for its leaders. In early 1905, Si Aissa ibn Umar al-Abdi's refusal to join the conspiracy and his warning to Sultan Abd al-Aziz underscored the internal divisions within the opposition. The sultan's response, sending a tax-collecting expedition with a secret mission to arrest Abd al-Hafiz, revealed the high stakes of the political struggle. The failure of this mission, due to the leaked plot and the support of Madani al-Glaoui, highlighted the complexities and challenges facing both the Hafiziya movement and the ruling regime. Despite its initial success, the Hafiziya movement eventually faced significant challenges that led to its decline. The unstable nature of the coalition, internal divisions, and external manipulation by the makhzan posed significant challenges to the movement's success.

The Influence of External Events on the Hafiziya Movement

The broader geopolitical context also played a significant role in shaping the Hafiziya movement. The opposition to French reforms in Fez and the broader dissatisfaction with colonial influence provided a backdrop for the conspiracy. Additionally, the influence of Madani al-Glaoui, who was inspired by external events such as Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War, added a layer of complexity to the movement's objectives and strategies. Glaoui's vision of modernization and progress reflected broader nationalist sentiments in the Middle East and North Africa. Glaoui's experiences during the makhzan expedition against Abu Himara and his observations during a visit to French Algeria shaped his views on the need for modernization. His advocacy for a crash program to modernize Morocco resonated with many supporters of the Hafiziya movement, who saw the potential for non-European peoples to achieve progress and resist colonial domination. This vision of modernization and resistance to colonial influence became a central theme in the Hafiziya movement's ideology. The Hafiziya movement also drew inspiration from other anti-colonial movements and nationalist struggles around the world. The success of Japan in the Russo-Japanese War demonstrated that non-European nations could challenge and defeat European powers. This example provided a powerful source of motivation for the Hafiziya movement, reinforcing their belief in the possibility of resisting colonial domination and achieving progress.

The Impact of the Hafiziya Movement on Morocco's Political Landscape

The rise of the Hafiziya movement had a profound impact on Morocco's political landscape. The movement's ability to mobilize support and challenge the central government's authority demonstrated the deep-seated discontent with the existing regime. The Hafiziya movement's calls for modernization and resistance to colonial influence resonated with many Moroccans, who saw the movement as a potential catalyst for change. The central government's response to the Hafiziya movement, including attempts to arrest Abd al-Hafiz and suppress the conspiracy, highlighted the regime's vulnerability and the growing opposition to its policies. The failure of these efforts to quell the movement underscored the limitations of the central government's authority and the increasing power of the opposition. The Hafiziya movement also contributed to a broader discourse on modernization and national identity in Morocco. The movement's emphasis on modernization and resistance to colonial influence reflected a broader desire for political and social reform. This discourse influenced subsequent nationalist movements and played a role in shaping Morocco's path towards independence. The civil war of the two sultans in early 20th century Morocco highlights a period of significant political upheaval and social change. The rise of Abd al-Hafiz, supported by influential figures like Madani al-Glaoui and various rural notables, marked a departure from traditional power structures. The movement, rooted in opposition to the existing regime and colonial influences, sought to establish a stronger and more legitimate government. The collaboration between a prince of the Alawi house and Amazigh chieftains symbolized a new era in Moroccan politics, reflecting broader themes of modernization, resistance to colonial influence, and the complexities of internal power dynamics.

Conclusion 

The Hafiziya movement's emphasis on modernization and its ability to attract a diverse range of supporters demonstrated the widespread desire for change and reform. However, the movement's internal divisions and external challenges ultimately led to its decline. Despite this, the Hafiziya movement left a lasting impact on Morocco's political landscape, contributing to the broader discourse on modernization and national identity. The movement's legacy is evident in the subsequent nationalist movements and the ongoing quest for political and social reform in Morocco. The civil war of the two sultans serves as a testament to the complexities and challenges of political opposition and resistance, highlighting the intricate interplay of internal and external factors that shape a nation's history.