On August 16, 1907, the Chaouia tribes sent a
letter to Abd al-Hafiz, reaching Marrakech. The notables and ulama were
convened at the Dar al-Makhzan to discuss the situation and consider
alternative courses of action. Abd al-Hafiz expressed his willingness to serve
as sultan, though he stressed his personal reluctance. Several speakers
highlighted the desperate situation of the country and the sufferings of the Chaouia people. Abd al-Hafiz’s mother, who was from the region, broke into tears at the
mention of their plight. The ulama were consulted on whether it was permissible
to depose Abd al-Aziz and select another sultan. Upon their affirmative
response, Muhammad Wuld Mawlay al-Rashid, son of the khalifa of Tafilalet,
endorsed Abd al-Hafiz, stating, “The only one who is fit for the dignity of
king, who is already khalifa, son and grandson of sultans of the imperial
dynasty, learned, capable, intelligent, is Mawlay Hafiz. May God give him
victory!” Madani al-Glaoui supported this invocation, leading those assembled
to repeat it. The ulama, sharifs, and notables signed the bay’a (the act of
allegiance), signifying the accession of a new sultan, marking the end of the
first act of the civil war.
The Civil War of the Two Sultans |
Public Rejoicing and Legitimacy
The rest of the day and
the following one were filled with public rejoicing. Abd al-Hafiz received
delegations from various city groups, including the pasha, notables, Fasi
merchants, and Jews. Over 400,000 pesetas in gifts were collected. Makhzan
properties were seized, and revenues from pious foundations (hublis) were
diverted to Abd al-Hafiz’s treasury. To further solidify his religious
legitimacy, Abd al-Hafiz made a ritual pilgrimage to the zawiya of Tamesloht in
the Atlas, where he was received by the sharifs, and visited the shrine of Sidi
Bel Abbes on the return journey. The new makhzan appointed by Abd al-Hafiz
reflected the basic forces behind the movement. Madani al-Glaoui was named the
minister of war (calif al-Kabir), given the significance of the position. The
grand vizir was Ibn Kabir, pasha of the qasba of Marrakech, initially appointed
as a hostage due to doubts about his loyalty. However, he lasted only until May
1908, when al-Glaoui formally took over. Si Aissa ibn Umar al-Abdi was
appointed as the minister of foreign affairs, with his principal secretary,
Abdallah al-Fasi, handling the office’s functions. Si Aissa, pasha of Safi and
head of the powerful Abda confederation, could mobilize a large cavalry force.
Al-Mtouggui was appointed as the minister of complaints, while Si Tayyib
al-Tazi, a long-time makhzan employee and Arab, became the minister of
finances.
Unprecedented Insurgency and Social Change
The insurgency of August
1907 was unprecedented in Morocco’s history, as it involved close collaboration
between a prince of the Alawi house and the Amazigh chieftains of the Western
High Atlas. This marked a drastic change in the social composition of the
makhzan, traditionally confined to Arab makhzan families and the notables of
major northern cities. By basing his government on semi-feudal Amazigh chiefs
rather than an effete clerical class, Abd al-Hafiz created a regime that
represented real and potent interests in the country, not just an isolated
urban Arab bureaucratic constituency. This shift opened up possibilities for
real reform and ensured that the new regime would be stronger than Abd
al-Aziz’s fragile government. However, if reform efforts began to conflict with
the interests of the great qaid-s, the new government could become vulnerable.
For the Hafiziya to develop into a truly national movement, it needed the
backing of the ulama and notables of Fez. The dominance of the new government
by the lords of the Atlas, however, was not reassuring to these groups.
Consolidating Power and Proclamations
After the proclamation in
Marrakech, most important tribes of the Marrakech plains region quickly rallied
to Abd al-Hafiz. During this period, southern cities like Azemmour and El
Jadida also proclaimed him as their ruler. In El Jadida, panic ensued, leading
the European population to seek refuge in consulates and wealthy Moroccans to
flee to Tangier. The French consul’s bold actions prevented the contents of the
makhzan armory from being handed over to insurgents. Safi proclaimed Abd
al-Hafiz on September 7, and Si Aissa ibn Umar departed for Marrakech with Abda
horsemen to join the government. Further north, the arrival of French cruisers
at Rabat prevented violence and a proclamation for Abd al-Hafiz. During the
reign of Mawlay al-Hasan, Madani al-Glaoui built his power base in the south
with makhzan support. He was interested in the world beyond his mountain
stronghold and subscribed to the Arabic press of the Arab East. His experiences
during the ill-fated makhzan expedition against Abu Himara in 1903 soured him
on Abd al-Aziz. A visit to French Algeria impressed him with Morocco's
backwardness, leading him to advocate for a crash program to modernize the
country. Like many Middle Eastern nationalists, he was inspired by Japan's
victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), which demonstrated that
non-European peoples could achieve progress. Glaoui's vision of modernization
resonated with many supporters of the Hafiziya movement, who saw the potential
for Morocco to resist European domination and achieve progress. His advocacy
for modernization was not limited to economic and infrastructural development
but also included educational reforms and the promotion of cultural and
intellectual growth. Glaoui believed that a modernized Morocco could better
protect its sovereignty and cultural heritage.
The Challenges and Internal Dynamics of the Hafiziya Movement
The Hafiziya movement's
ability to attract a diverse range of supporters, including rural notables,
urban elites, and religious leaders, demonstrated its broad appeal. However,
the movement's success also depended on its ability to navigate the intricate political
landscape and build alliances with key stakeholders. The shifting alliances and
power dynamics within the movement created both opportunities and challenges
for its leaders. In early 1905, Si Aissa ibn Umar al-Abdi's refusal to join the
conspiracy and his warning to Sultan Abd al-Aziz underscored the internal
divisions within the opposition. The sultan's response, sending a
tax-collecting expedition with a secret mission to arrest Abd al-Hafiz,
revealed the high stakes of the political struggle. The failure of this
mission, due to the leaked plot and the support of Madani al-Glaoui,
highlighted the complexities and challenges facing both the Hafiziya movement
and the ruling regime. Despite its initial success, the Hafiziya movement
eventually faced significant challenges that led to its decline. The unstable
nature of the coalition, internal divisions, and external manipulation by the
makhzan posed significant challenges to the movement's success.
The Influence of External Events on the Hafiziya Movement
The broader geopolitical
context also played a significant role in shaping the Hafiziya movement. The
opposition to French reforms in Fez and the broader dissatisfaction with
colonial influence provided a backdrop for the conspiracy. Additionally, the
influence of Madani al-Glaoui, who was inspired by external events such as
Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War, added a layer of complexity to the
movement's objectives and strategies. Glaoui's vision of modernization and
progress reflected broader nationalist sentiments in the Middle East and North
Africa. Glaoui's experiences during the makhzan expedition against Abu Himara
and his observations during a visit to French Algeria shaped his views on the
need for modernization. His advocacy for a crash program to modernize Morocco
resonated with many supporters of the Hafiziya movement, who saw the potential
for non-European peoples to achieve progress and resist colonial domination.
This vision of modernization and resistance to colonial influence became a
central theme in the Hafiziya movement's ideology. The Hafiziya movement also
drew inspiration from other anti-colonial movements and nationalist struggles
around the world. The success of Japan in the Russo-Japanese War demonstrated
that non-European nations could challenge and defeat European powers. This
example provided a powerful source of motivation for the Hafiziya movement,
reinforcing their belief in the possibility of resisting colonial domination
and achieving progress.
The Impact of the Hafiziya Movement on Morocco's Political Landscape
The rise of the Hafiziya
movement had a profound impact on Morocco's political landscape. The movement's
ability to mobilize support and challenge the central government's authority
demonstrated the deep-seated discontent with the existing regime. The Hafiziya
movement's calls for modernization and resistance to colonial influence
resonated with many Moroccans, who saw the movement as a potential catalyst for
change. The central government's response to the Hafiziya movement, including
attempts to arrest Abd al-Hafiz and suppress the conspiracy, highlighted the
regime's vulnerability and the growing opposition to its policies. The failure
of these efforts to quell the movement underscored the limitations of the
central government's authority and the increasing power of the opposition. The
Hafiziya movement also contributed to a broader discourse on modernization and
national identity in Morocco. The movement's emphasis on modernization and
resistance to colonial influence reflected a broader desire for political and
social reform. This discourse influenced subsequent nationalist movements and
played a role in shaping Morocco's path towards independence. The civil war of
the two sultans in early 20th century Morocco highlights a period of
significant political upheaval and social change. The rise of Abd al-Hafiz,
supported by influential figures like Madani al-Glaoui and various rural
notables, marked a departure from traditional power structures. The movement, rooted
in opposition to the existing regime and colonial influences, sought to
establish a stronger and more legitimate government. The collaboration between
a prince of the Alawi house and Amazigh chieftains symbolized a new era in
Moroccan politics, reflecting broader themes of modernization, resistance to
colonial influence, and the complexities of internal power dynamics.
Conclusion
The Hafiziya movement's
emphasis on modernization and its ability to attract a diverse range of
supporters demonstrated the widespread desire for change and reform. However,
the movement's internal divisions and external challenges ultimately led to its
decline. Despite this, the Hafiziya movement left a lasting impact on Morocco's
political landscape, contributing to the broader discourse on modernization and
national identity. The movement's legacy is evident in the subsequent
nationalist movements and the ongoing quest for political and social reform in
Morocco. The civil war of the two sultans serves as a testament to the complexities
and challenges of political opposition and resistance, highlighting the
intricate interplay of internal and external factors that shape a nation's
history.
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