On May 13, 1900, the death of the grand vizier and regent, Ba Ahmad ibn Musa, marked the end of an era for Morocco. The cautious diplomatic policies and conservative domestic stance that characterized the last years of Sultan Mawlay al-Hassan's reign no longer seemed appropriate to the new makhzan that took control of the government. The antireform viziers who survived the cholera epidemic, which took the life of Ba Ahmad, were soon replaced by a younger makhzan with different attitudes toward internal reforms. With British diplomatic support, Morocco embarked on a program of administrative reforms and internal improvements aimed at strengthening the state's ability to withstand French diplomatic pressures. However, by 1903, the optimistic dreams of a renewed Moroccan state were shattered by a major rural protest movement against reforms and changing diplomatic circumstances that placed France in an uncontested position of dominance.
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| The Legacy of Ba Ahmad |
The Accession of Sultan Abd al-Aziz
The death of Sultan Mawlay al-Hassan on June 7, 1894, while on campaign in the Tadla region, posed a grave problem for the royal caravan amidst hostile tribes. The chamberlain, Ba Ahmad ibn Musa, seized the opportunity to bring about the accession of Hassan's youngest son, Abd al-Aziz, and arranged for himself to be regent. The incumbent makhzan, notably the Jama'i family who were archenemies of the new regent, was ousted, and Ibn Musa's family came to power. The death of the sultan was concealed until the royal caravan reached safety, and the proclamation of the ulama of Rabat was obtained without much difficulty. However, the accession of Abd al-Aziz was not viewed favorably in much of Morocco. Many of the ulama resented the irregular manner in which the proclamation had been handled and the fact that they were confronted with a fait accompli rather than given the opportunity to formally assent free from constraint. While they signed the bay'ah announcing their adherence to Abd al-Aziz's selection, it was only after considerable grumbling. Other sons of Hassan had claims to the throne and popular support, notably Mawlay Bilghith and Mawlay Muhammad. Bilghith had some support among the tribes of the Chaouia province, but a revolt on his behalf was quickly suppressed. Mawlay Muhammad represented a more serious threat to Ba Ahmad's plans due to his reputation as a vigorous leader and just ruler with strong support among tribes and segments of the ulama. Consequently, Ba Ahmad placed Mawlay Muhammad under house arrest in Meknes, where he remained closely guarded for the rest of Abd al-Aziz's reign.
The Internal Political Situation
The internal political situation in Morocco in 1900 was less stable than it appeared on the surface. Three years of almost ceaseless campaigning from 1894 to 1897 brought the tribal dissidence following the interregnum under control, and the court retired to Marrakech. While the court was in the south, the tribes in the north around Fez adopted a semi-autonomous stance due to the absence of close supervision. The jaysh tribes in the north grew increasingly accustomed to enjoying the privileges of their status without performing their military duties. In the south, the court's presence in Marrakech for five years enabled ambitious chiefs of the Western High Atlas to expand their domination over more tribes in return for services rendered to the makhzan. After Hassan's death, the fiefs of the great qaids attained their fullest development. Chiefs like al-Faqih Madani al-Glaoui gained notoriety by supplying troops for makhzan expeditions in the Sous valley and elsewhere. In return for their services, the great qaids received vast additions to the number of tribes under their authority, including tax-farm privileges over wealthy tribes in the Marrakech plain. Ba Ahmad ibn Musa's skill at sowing division among tribes and qaids, and using them against one another to achieve his ends, helped maintain political stability. Despite neglecting the northern and Algerian frontier tribes, no significant cracks had appeared in the edifice fashioned under Hassan by 1900. However, his successors lacked Ba Ahmad's skill, leading to the northern and eastern frontier tribes assuming more autonomous positions and the great qaids expanding their domains unchecked.
Reforms and Their Repercussions
Ba Ahmad's successors continued most of his internal policies but without the same efficacy. A key policy was the gradual weakening of the zawiyas as loci of regional power. Ba Ahmad consistently worked to curb the temporal power of religious shrines and the lodges of religious brotherhoods by attacking their privileges, such as owning vast tracts of land and herds and granting sanctuary to those accused of crimes. This movement against religious brotherhoods and saint cults had its origins in the traditions of the dynasty. Despite the implementation of administrative reforms and internal improvements with British support, the optimistic vision of a renewed Moroccan state was short-lived. By 1903, a major rural movement of protest against reforms emerged, coupled with changed diplomatic circumstances that favored France's dominance. The reforms, while well-intentioned, faced resistance from rural populations who perceived them as threats to their traditional ways of life. The discontent among tribes and rural communities further destabilized the internal political landscape.
Economic and Social Changes
The period of Ba Ahmad's regency saw significant economic and social changes in Morocco. The conservative policies of the late nineteenth century had hindered the development of infrastructure and modernization. However, with British support, the new makhzan initiated various projects aimed at improving the country's infrastructure. These included the construction of roads, bridges, and administrative buildings. The aim was to enhance the state's administrative capacity and improve communication and transportation within the country. Economic reforms were also introduced to stimulate trade and agriculture. Efforts were made to improve irrigation systems, promote commercial agriculture, and enhance trade relations with European powers. However, the benefits of these reforms were unevenly distributed, and many rural communities did not experience significant improvements in their living conditions. The economic disparities between urban and rural areas persisted, contributing to social tensions and discontent. The involvement of foreign powers, particularly Britain and France, played a significant role in shaping Morocco's political landscape during this period. Britain's support for Morocco's administrative reforms was driven by its strategic interests in the region. By strengthening Morocco's internal stability, Britain aimed to counterbalance French influence and maintain its own foothold in North Africa. However, France's diplomatic maneuvers ultimately proved more effective in securing its dominance over Morocco. The changing diplomatic circumstances, coupled with internal unrest and resistance to reforms, weakened Morocco's ability to resist French pressures. By the early twentieth century, France had established itself as the dominant power in the region, setting the stage for the eventual establishment of the French protectorate in 1912.
Conclusion
The death of Ba Ahmad ibn Musa in 1900 marked the end of an era for Morocco. His cautious diplomatic policies and conservative domestic stance were replaced by a younger makhzan with a different vision for the country's future. Despite initial efforts to implement administrative reforms and internal improvements with British support, the optimistic dreams of a renewed Moroccan state were short-lived. The outbreak of rural protests, coupled with changing diplomatic circumstances that favored French dominance, undermined the effectiveness of these reforms. The internal political situation remained fragile, with tribal dissidence, economic disparities, and the growing influence of foreign powers contributing to the complexities of Morocco's transformation during this period. Understanding the legacy of Ba Ahmad provides crucial insights into the historical context of Morocco's political, economic, and social dynamics in the early twentieth century.
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