The changing balance of power between Morocco and the West during the nineteenth century became increasingly visible through the aggressiveness of even minor European powers. The Tetouan War of 1859-1860 was a significant shock for Morocco, further compounded by French police action near the Moroccan city of Oudjda in 1860. Although no serious military challenges arose for a decade thereafter, Moroccan sultans struggled to regain their previous diplomatic position, which had been strongly supported by Britain to maintain Moroccan independence. With commercial expansion after 1860, European powers grew more interested in increasing their influence in Morocco and more aggressive in enforcing their demands for preferred treatment by the Makhzan (the Moroccan administration). Three major areas of friction between the powers and the Moroccan government were the status of proteges, commercial privileges, and frontier incidents between Moroccan tribesmen and French and Spanish troops.
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| Changing Balance of Power Between Morocco and the West |
Status of Proteges and Commercial Privileges
Protection and commercial privileges both related to the degree of autonomy that the Moroccan government was willing to grant resident foreign merchants. The privilege of extraterritoriality enjoyed by European merchants and its extension to Moroccan nationals under patents of protection had several consequences. These included the development of an aggressive Moroccan bourgeoisie in the ports, who paid no taxes and were immune from Moroccan legal jurisdiction; the sale of patents of protection by European diplomats and merchants; and the erosion of the makhzan's authority around the ports, which tended to become autonomous European enclaves. Diplomatic issues pressed by Europeans after 1860 included the number of ports Europeans could reside in, property ownership rights, enforcement of sanitary regulations, free export of cereal grains, and relative trading privileges. Later, some powers sought the right to introduce broad reforms in Morocco. Given the wide range of privileges enjoyed or demanded by European residents and their corrosive effect on Moroccan institutions, it is not surprising that Moroccan sultans viewed them as a threat to state sovereignty. Proteges sought their consuls' support at the slightest affront, and consuls generally backed them. The right of protection was widely abused and discussed in diplomatic conferences, notably at Tangier (1867) and Madrid (1880). Although never fully resolved, the Madrid Convention confirmed the status quo and began the internationalization of the Moroccan Question. British efforts, led by Sir John Drummond Hay, aimed to reform protection, but little real progress was made before he departed in 1886.
Special Trading Rights and Reform Programs
The question of special trading rights and reform programs gained prominence after 1880 when the French and British launched diplomatic offensives to secure a favored position in Morocco and sponsor comprehensive reforms. In 1884, Ordega, the French minister at Tangier, attempted to force reforms under French sponsorship through the sharif of Wazzan, a French protege. This alarmed Sultan Mawlay al-Hasan and other powers, leading to French withdrawal from the project. A decade later, Sir Charles Euan Smith, the British minister at Tangier, attempted to secure reforms and privileges but was forced to retire after French support for the sultan. Both incidents revealed that the Moroccan Question had no easy answer, France had the better chance for a protectorate, and a prolonged French diplomatic campaign was necessary to disengage all interested parties.
Frontier Incidents and Military Reforms
Friction between Moroccan tribes and French or Spanish posts posed an immediate danger, potentially serving as a pretext for pacificatory expeditions and the loss of Moroccan territory. The French victory at the Battle of Isly in 1844 exemplified the danger of direct Moroccan government support for frontier tribes. Only British diplomatic intervention and the lack of French desire to add Morocco to its North African possessions prevented a worse outcome. Following Isly, periodic frontier incidents continued, revealing the Moroccan army's weakness and the need for far-reaching reforms. In 1864, the revolt of the Algerian tribe of Oulad Sidi Cheikh drew many Moroccan tribes into conflict, leading to a large French expedition to the Guir Valley in 1870. Only restrictive instructions from Paris and the Franco-Prussian War prevented French troops from reaching the Tafilalet oasis. Sultan Sidi Muhammad feared French territorial annexation, and the frontier tribes formed a baraka to resist further French encroachment. However, following France's defeat by Germany, disputes along the frontier were settled through diplomacy rather than force for a decade. Another significant tribal revolt in the Sud-Oranais in 1881, led by Abu 'Imamah, incited a French pacificatory expedition and the establishment of a post at Ain Sefra, which diverted trade from Tafilalet to Fez.
Influence of Local Leaders and Resistance Movements
As French encroachment transformed the southeastern Moroccan frontier's economic context, the political situation also changed. A local Darqawa shaykh, Si al-'Arbi, wielded considerable influence over frontier tribes and grew alarmed by the French advance. Mawlay al-Hasan's weak response did not reassure him. In the early 1880s, Si al-'Arbi called for a resistance against the French and amassed a substantial following. By 1888, he challenged the makhzan to act against the French, threatening to arm the tribes if they did not. The situation remained tense for years, with the makhzan threatened by Si al-'Arbi's growing power. However, his death in 1892 and Mawlay al-Hasan's visit to Tafilalet restored precarious order to the region.
Economic Expansion and European Interests
The commercial expansion that began after 1860 saw European powers becoming increasingly interested in strengthening their positions in Morocco. This period witnessed a growing assertiveness in enforcing demands for preferred treatment by the Moroccan government. European merchants and speculators played a significant role in reshaping the Moroccan economy and influencing internal politics. They aggressively pursued their commercial interests, often clashing with the local authorities and disrupting traditional trade practices. European merchants enjoyed various privileges that allowed them to operate with relative autonomy within Morocco. The privilege of extraterritoriality, which exempted them from local jurisdiction, enabled them to conduct business without interference from Moroccan authorities. This privilege extended to Moroccan nationals under patents of protection, further complicating the situation. The development of a Moroccan bourgeoisie in the ports, immune from taxes and local laws, posed a significant challenge to the makhzan's authority. The sale of protection patents by European diplomats and merchants exacerbated the issue, leading to increased tension between the local and foreign communities.
Diplomatic Negotiations and Concessions
The diplomatic negotiations that followed aimed to address these growing tensions and establish a framework for managing the presence and activities of European merchants in Morocco. Several key issues were brought to the forefront, including the number of ports where Europeans could reside, property ownership rights, enforcement of sanitary regulations, free export of cereal grains, and trading privileges. These negotiations often involved multiple European powers, each seeking to secure favorable terms for their nationals. The diplomatic efforts were characterized by a series of conferences, notably those held in Tangier (1867) and Madrid (1880). These conferences aimed to resolve the issues related to protection and commercial privileges, but they often resulted in maintaining the status quo rather than achieving significant reforms. The British, under Sir John Drummond Hay, led efforts to reform the protection system, but progress was limited. The Madrid Convention confirmed existing privileges while beginning the internationalization of the Moroccan Question, further complicating the situation.
Aggressive Diplomatic Moves by France and Britain
By the 1880s, the competition for influence in Morocco intensified, with both France and Britain launching aggressive diplomatic campaigns to secure a favored position. In 1884, Ordega, the French minister at Tangier, sought to implement reforms under French sponsorship through the sharif of Wazzan, a French protege. This move alarmed Sultan Mawlay al-Hasan and other powers, leading to France withdrawing from the project. Similarly, Sir Charles Euan Smith, the British minister at Tangier, attempted to secure reforms and privileges but faced resistance from the sultan, supported by France. These incidents highlighted the complexities of the Moroccan Question and the challenges of securing a protectorate. Both French and British diplomats acted largely on their initiative, and their governments eventually disavowed their actions. The competing interests of European powers and the strategic importance of Morocco ensured that diplomatic maneuvers continued, with each power seeking to gain an advantage.
Frontier Incidents and Military Reforms
Friction between Moroccan tribes and French or Spanish posts posed an immediate danger, potentially serving as a pretext for pacificatory expeditions and the loss of Moroccan territory. The French victory at the Battle of Isly in 1844 exemplified the danger of direct Moroccan government support for frontier tribes. Only British diplomatic intervention and the lack of French desire to add Morocco to its North African possessions prevented a worse outcome. Following Isly, periodic frontier incidents continued, revealing the Moroccan army's weakness and the need for far-reaching reforms. In 1864, the revolt of the Algerian tribe of Oulad Sidi Cheikh drew many Moroccan tribes into conflict, leading to a large French expedition to the Guir Valley in 1870. Only restrictive instructions from Paris and the Franco-Prussian War prevented French troops from reaching the Tafilalet oasis. Sultan Sidi Muhammad feared French territorial annexation, and the frontier tribes formed a baraka to resist further French encroachment. However, following France's defeat by Germany, disputes along the frontier were settled through diplomacy rather than force for a decade. Another significant tribal revolt in the Sud-Oranais in 1881, led by Abu 'Imamah, incited a French pacificatory expedition and the establishment of a post at Ain Sefra, which diverted trade from Tafilalet to Fez. As French encroachment transformed the southeastern Moroccan frontier's economic context, the political situation also changed. A local Darqawa shaykh, Si al-'Arbi, wielded considerable influence over frontier tribes and grew alarmed by the French advance. Mawlay al-Hasan's weak response did not reassure him. In the early 1880s, Si al-'Arbi called for a resistance against the French and amassed a substantial following. By 1888, he challenged the makhzan to act against the French, threatening to arm the tribes if they did not. The situation remained tense for years, with the makhzan threatened by Si al-'Arbi's growing power. However, his death in 1892 and Mawlay al-Hasan's visit to Tafilalet restored precarious order to the region.
Conclusion
The changing balance of power between Morocco and the West in the late nineteenth century was marked by increasing European aggression, significant economic and political reforms, and ongoing frontier conflicts. These factors contributed to the gradual erosion of Moroccan sovereignty and set the stage for the eventual establishment of European colonial rule in Morocco. Understanding these complex dynamics provides crucial insights into the historical context of Morocco's transformation during this period.
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